Anticoagulated Patients in the ED

A prospective study of 300 ED patients on warfarin found that:

• 43% had sub-therapeutic INRs
• 29% were supra-therapeutic

So, only 28% had therapeutic INRs…

• It rarely hurts to check an anticoagulated patient’s INR!

Important hemorrhagic complications include:

• hematuria (most common)
• intracranial hemorrhage (most devastating)
• spinal epidural hematoma
• retroperitoneal hemorrhage (only 2/3 have abdominal pain)
• rectus sheath hematoma
• hemopericardium
• hemothorax
• compartment syndrome (consider in any limb trauma)
• hemarthrosis

There is remarkably little evidence to guide us in dealing with this common and often difficult problem.

A conservative approach is to perform a CT head on all anticoagulated patients following a head injury, unless the INR is subtherapeutic. However at least one small study supports the recommendation that a CT head may not be required if the patient is GCS15 and has no focal neurological deficit. However, the evidence for this recommendation is very weak.

Patients on antiplatelet drugs (such as aspirin or clopidogrel) probably also have a higher risk of intracranial bleeds as well as worse outcomes, however there is little evidence to guide us on their management either.

Unless the head injury was really trivial, order a CT head in anticoagulated patients following head injury.

Delayed intracranial hemorrhage is a recognised complication of head injury in anticoagulated patients.

It is probably best to get the CT head as soon as is feasible. However, even if an initial CT head is normal, observation for 6-12 hours and consideration of a repeat CT head is warranted due to the risk of delayed intracranial hemorrhage.

Again, there is little evidence to guide us on this one.

Even when intravenous vitamin K has been diluted and given slowly there have been reports of severe anaphylactoid reactions and cardiorespiratory arrest. In light of this, if given, vitamin K should be diluted and administered no faster than 1mg/min.

IV vitamin K should only be given in the context of life-threatening hemorrhage in an anticoagulated patient. Use oral vitamin K whenever possible, unless GI absorption is likely to be compromised.

Protamine is a reversal agent for heparin. It also reverses about 60% of the effect of low-molecular weight heparin. The maximum dose of protamine is 50mg IV given over 5-10 minutes.

• 1mg protamine for each 100 units of heparin administered — this review advises this dose based on the amount of heparin given in the past 4 hours. Others advise hslving the dose after 1 hour, and quartering it after 2 hours.
• 1mg protamine for each 1 mg of enoxaparin administered — the dose of protamine sulphate should be halved when one half-life has elapsed since the last LMW heparin dose.

Along with the more commonly recognised Grey Turner and Cullen sign, they are signs of retroperitoneal hemorrhage. All tend to occur late.

• Grey Turner sign — flank echymosis
• Cullen sign — periumbilical echymosis
• Fox’s sign — echymosis of the upper thigh with a sharp demarcation below the inguinal ligament
• Blue Scrotum Sign of Bryant — scrotal echymosis

Closure time is a measurement of platelet function that replaces the measurement of bleeding time. Citrate-anticoagulated blood is placed in a cartridge with a special membrane, and time-to-clot is assessed. Two types of membrane are used: collagen/ epinephrine and collagen/ ADP. Aspirin will prolong clotting time on the former membrane, but not the latter.

FFP, or fresh frozen plasma, requires a group and screen like any other blood product. It restores factors II, VII, IX and X in the anticoagulated patient with serious hemorrhage. As it needs to be thawed, there can be a delay of 30-45 minutes prior to it being ready for administration. The dose is 10-15 mL/kg, which may represent a significant fluid load in patients that are elderly and frail, or have heart failure.

PCC, or prothrombin complex concentrate, is a 3 factor pooled plasma product that has a small volume. It is rich in factors II, IX and X, but deplete in factor VII compared to FFP. It provides faster, and perhaps more complete INR reversal than FPP alone, though it is usually used with a lower dose of FFP (e.g. 150-300 mL). PCC is more expensive than FFP and may cause thromboembolic complications, so is best reversed for life-threatening hemorrhage in the anticoagulated patient. In Europe, a 4 factor PCC (containing Factor VII) is available.

According to Australian guidelines, the recommended dose of Prothrombinex-HT for life-threatening hemorrhage in the patient with an elevated INR is 25–50 IU/kg.

Desmopressin increases platelet adherence by promoting the release of von Willebrand’s factor. It is inexpensive and does not carry blood-borne viruses. It is primarily used in von Willebrand’s disease and mild hemophilia A. It may have a role in other conditions resulting in abnormal primary hemostasis (formation of the platelet plug) such as acquired bleeding disorders, uremic platelet dysfunction, and patients on anti-platelet drugs (e.g. aspirin, clopidogrel). The dose is 0.3 mcg/kg IV and adverse effects include flushing, hypotension, tachycardia and headache.